VA and RX Vertex Decentration and magnification Price Test graphics General
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OptolaTor
Optometry tool

Scoreboard

Earlier points:

Total points:

0

Visual acuity conversion

Snellen decimal

Snellen fraction m

Snellen fraction ft

LogMAR

Fill one field and press enter.

Snellen decimal

Snellen fraction m

Snellen fraction ft

LogMAR

Background

Conversion formulas

Snellen decimal =
Snellen numerator
Snellen denominator
Snellen fraction =
Wanted numerator
Wanted numerator / Snellen decimal
logMAR = log10 ( 1
Snellen visual acuity )
Snellen decimal =
1
10logMAR

Reference [1]

Invalid input

Convert between plus-cylinder and minus-cylinder

Background

New sphere = old sphere + old cylinder

New cylinder = old cylinder · -1

New axis = old axis + 90, reduced by 180 if necessary

Spherical equivalent

Sphere

Cylinder

Result

Invalid input

Cylinder without sign is calculated as plus-cylinder.

Background

Spherical equivalent = sphere + half the cylinder

Keratometry diopter to mm conversion

Fill in one field and press enter.

Background
Diopters =
ncornea - nair
Radius
Radius =
ncornea - nair
Diopters

n is refractive index.

This calculator uses the conventional keratometric index of 1.3375, and n = 1 for air. The approach is not completely correct, but widely used by keratometers.

Reference [44]

Invalid input

Vertex distance calculator

Cylinder without sign is calculated as plus-cylinder.

If moved away from the eye, write a negative mm amount.

Background
Vertex corrected power =
1
1 / Power - Distance in meters

The calculator saves you the hassle of keeping track of the sphere and cylinder calculations. Axis added for simplicity.

Reference [2]

Vertex distance chart

Write only sphere, without sign. If moved away from the eye, write a negative mm amount.

Background
Vertex corrected power =
1
1 / Power - Distance in meters

Reference [2]

Minus

Plus

Estimate prisms from decentration

Fill in prescription, then either amount of mm or desired prism. Then press enter while the field is marked.

In this calculator, any axis not close to 90° or 180° is considered oblique. For oblique axis, the calculation is based on spherical equivalent and less precise. The higher the cylinder, the less reliable the calculation.

Cylinder without sign is calculated as plus-cylinder.

The base direction is the direction the lens is thickening. For example, increasing pupillary distance will give base-out prism in a plus-powered lens and base-in prism in a minus-powered lens.

A lens with prism decentration should always be controlled manually.

▼

Background

Calculated with Prentice's rule: Prism diopters = Lens power · distance in cm

If distance is supplied: Prism diopters = mm distance / 10 · Lens Power

If prisms are supplied: mm distance = Prism diopters · 10 / Lens Power

An axis of 90° contributes to horisontal prism, an axis of 180° contributes to vertical prism.

Reference [2, 3, 4, 5]

Amount of mm movement for 0.5 prism diopters per eye

This section does not take into account the sum of both eyes, so calculating 0.5 prism for both eyes will result in 1.0 total prism.

In this calculator, any axis not close to 90° or 180° is considered oblique. For oblique axis, the calculation is based on spherical equivalent and less precise. The higher the cylinder, the less reliable the calculation.

Cylinder without sign is calculated as plus-cylinder.

A lens with prism decentration should always be controlled manually.

▼

Background

The basis for this calculator is the assumption that 0.5 prism diopters is a reasonable limit for acceptable decentration.

Prentice's rule: Prism diopters = Lens power · distance in cm

Decentration in mm to reach 0.5 prism diopters = (0.5 / Lens Power) · 10

Reference [2, 3, 4, 5]

Spectacle magnification (SM)

Power factor

Sphere

Cylinder

mm vertex distance

Shape factor

mm center thickness

Refractive index

D front curve

Sphere's meridian

Change

Cylinder's meridian

Change

Relative spectacle magnification (RSM)

Sphere's meridian

Change

R/L difference

Cylinder's meridian

Change

R/L difference

Do not trust these measurements blindly, as magnification has different effects on different eyes and can have big consequences for the patient. A proper evaluation is neccessary.

Press the circle button to exclude or include shape factor.

Cylinder without sign is calculated as plus-cylinder.

The input needs to be correct for vertex distance. For example, when calculating contact lens magnification: if the patient's spectacle power is -5.00D and the contact lens power is -4.75D, you need to input -4.75 for sphere and 0 for vertex distance.

▼

Background

The formulas for spectacle magnification and relative spectacle magnification differ by source. For this calculator, the following is used:

SM or RSM = Power factor · Shape factor

Alternatively, shape factor can be disregarded for thin lenses and contact lenses.

Shape factor =
1
1 - t / n · F1

t is the thickness of the lens.

n is the refractive index of the lens.

F1 is the front curve of the lens in diopters.

SM Power factor =
1
1 - d · Lens power

d is in this case calculated as the vertex distance + 3 mm. 3 mm is the assumed distance between the cornea and the entrance pupil.


RSM power factor =
Power of the emmetropic eye
Ametropic eye's combined optical system power

=
60D in Gullstrand's eye
Lens power + Power of the uncorrected eye - d · Lens power · Power of the uncorrected eye

d is in this case, and the below equations, calculated as the vertex distance + 1.348 mm. 1.348 mm is the distance between the cornea and primary principle plane in Gullstrand's eye.

RSM power factor in axial ametropia =
60D
Lens power + 60D · (1 - d · Lens power)

RSM power factor in refractive ametropia =
1
1 - d · Lens power

d and t are converted to meters by the website for all these calculations.

Reference [2]

Sum all

0.00

-0.00

0.00

Cover test

Cover right eye Cover left eye Uncover Orthophoria Esophoria Exophoria Left esotropia Left exotropia Alternating exotropia Right hyperphoria / left hypophoria Right hypophoria / left hyperphoria Right hypertropia

Motility test

Inferior oblique Medial rectus Superior oblique Inferior rectus Temporal rectus Superior rectus Superior rectus Temporal rectus Inferior rectus Superior oblique Medial rectus Inferior oblique Innervation:

Choose structure or click the figure ▾

Tear film

Axial length

Cornea

Anterior ch. depth

Anterior ch. angle

Pupil diameter

Lens thickness

Globe height

Vitreous depth

Retina

Anatomic values from studies

Cornea

[7, 8, 9, 10, 25, 26, 27, 27, 30, 32, 33, 39]

Central thickness: mean from 526.1 to 563 µm ▾ 8: Mean 534 ± 40 µm. Measured with IOLMaster 700. The right eyes of 28.709 subjects: Cataract surgery candidates, 59.1%/40.9% female/male, mean age 68.6 ± 11.0 (40 to 101). Measured in China, in 2018 and 2019.
9: Mean 549 ± 34 µm in right eyes and 550 ± 34 µm in left eyes. Measured with Lenstar LS900. 5744 eyes of 3014 subjects: 48.4% female, mean age 58.6 ± 10.4. Measured in Germany.
27: Mean 530.59 ± 30.12 µm in right eyes and 530.51 ± 30.11 µm in left eyes. 2.490 subjects: 1.379/1.111 female/male, mean age 56.6 ± 10.39 (35 to 86). Measured in Hebei Province in northern China.
26: Mean 526.1 ± 31.3 µm. 3,266 eyes: age 50 to 74 years. Measured in Iran.
25: Myopic study population. Mean 542.78 ± 31.81 µm, range from 293 to 651 µm. Evaluated with Corvis-ST. 1645 subjects: 1132/513 female/male, mean age 19.01 ± 0.92 years (15.69 to 24.41). Students at Dali University in Yunnan Province, China.
32: Corneal astigmatism over 6 excluded. Mean 538.18 ± 38.23 µm. Range from 400 to 674 µm. Measured with Suoer SW-9000 μm Plus biometer. The right eyes of 935 subjects: 428/507 female/male, mean age 30.69 ± 5.11 (21 to 44). Chinese population.
39: Mean 544.3 ± 36.5 µm. 540 eyes of 290 subjects: 199/91 female/male, mean age 45.2 ± 14.2. Measured in Taiwan.
7: Mean 534.35 ± 36.2 µm. Measured with Orbscan. 124 subjects: 66/58 female/male, mean age 35 ± 15.1 years. Hispanic population. Measured in 2012 and 2013.
30: Mean 536.59 µm. Measured with CSO Sirius Tomograph and Corneal Topographer. 224 eyes of 112 subjects: 69/43 female/male, median age 44.5 (19-77). Measured in Nepal in 2025.
10: Mean 563.0 ± 31.1 µm. 70 subjects: aged 12 to 80 years with 10 subjects per decade.
 . Standard deviation from 31.1 to 40 µm.

Women: mean 529.86 to 547 µm ▾ 27: Mean 530.17 ± 29.87 µm in right eyes and 529.86 ± 30.34 µm in left eyes. 1.379 subjects: mean age 55.89 ± 10.09. Measured in Hebei Province in northern China.
9: Mean 546 ± 35 µm in right eyes and 547 ± 34 µm in left eyes. Measured with Lenstar LS900. 1460 subjects: mean age 58.1 ± 10.3. Measured in Germany.
25: Myopic study population. Mean 542.22 ± 31.75 µm, range from 293 to 643 µm. Evaluated with Corvis-ST. 1132 subjects: mean age 18.98 ± 0.95 years (15.69 to 24.41). Students at Dali University in Yunnan Province, China.
 . Standard deviation from 29.87 to 35 µm.

Men: mean from 531.32 to 552 µm ▾ 9: Mean 552 ± 34 µm. Measured with Lenstar LS900. 1554 subjects: mean age 59.1 ± 10.5. Measured in Germany.
27: Mean 531.11 ± 30.43 µm in right eyes and 531.32 ± 29.82 µm in left eyes. 1.111 subjects: mean age 57.48 ± 10.68. Measured in Hebei Province in northern China.
25: Myopic study population. Mean 544.02 ± 31.93µm, range from 422 to 651 µm. Evaluated with Corvis-ST. 513 subjects: mean age 19.06 ± 0.87 years (15.95 to 22.58). Students at Dali University in Yunnan Province, China.
 . Standard deviation from 29.82 to 34 µm.


Keratometry: mean from 42.91 to 44.44 ▾ 8: Mean 44.26 ± 1.70 D. Measured with IOLMaster 700. The right eyes of 28.709 subjects: Cataract surgery candidates, 59.1%/40.9% female/male, mean age 68.6 ± 11.0 (40 to 101). Measured in China, in 2018 and 2019.
9: Mean corneal power 44.0 ± 1.6 D. Measured with Lenstar LS900. 5744 eyes of 3014 subjects: 48.4% female, mean age 58.6 ± 10.4. Measured in Germany.
27: Mean 44.2 ± 1.53 D for right eyes and 44.19 ± 1.54 D for left eyes. Measured with Topcon KR8800. 2.490 subjects: 1.379/1.111 female/male, age 56.6 ± 10.39 (35 to 86). Measured in Hebei Province in northern China.
33: Mean 44.44 ± 1.58 D. Measured with Oculus Pentacam AXL. 4,244 eyes of 2,268 subjects: 1,332 female, mean age 66.9 ± 5.6 (60 to 95). Measured in Iran from 2019 to 2020.
26: Mean 7.6 ± 0.3 mm. 3,263 eyes: age 50 to 74 years. Measured in Iran.
25: Myopic study population. Mean 42.91 ± 1.52 D, range from 29.85 to 47.87 D. Measured with IOL Master. 1645 subjects: 1132/513 female/male, mean age 19.01 ± 0.92 years (15.69 to 24.41). Students at Dali University in Yunnan Province, China.
 . Standard deviation from 1.52 to 1.7 D.

Women: mean from 43.17 to 44.75 D ▾ 8: Mean 44.62 D. Measured with IOLMaster 700. The right eyes of 16.956 cataract surgery candidates. Measured in China, in 2018 and 2019.
9: Mean corneal power 44.4 ± 1.5 D. Measured with Lenstar LS900. 1460 subjects: mean age 58.1 ± 10.3. Measured in Germany.
27: Mean 44.51 ± 1.48 D for right eyes and 44.53 ± 1.50 D for left eyes. Measured with Topcon KR8800. 1.379 subjects: age 58.89 ± 10.09. Measured in Hebei Province in northern China.
33 Mean 44.75 ± 1.74 D. Measured with Oculus Pentacam AXL. 1,332 subjects. Measured in Iran from 2019 to 2020. 25: Myopic study population. Mean 43.17 ± 1.43 D, range from 43.47 to 47.87 D. Measured with IOL Master. 1132 subjects: mean age 18.98 ± 0.95 years (15.69 to 24.41). Students at Dali University in Yunnan Province, China.
 . Standard deviation from 1.43 to 1.74 D.

Men: mean from 42.34 to 44.15 D ▾ 8: Mean 43.75 D. Measured with IOLMaster 700. The right eyes of 11.753 cataract surgery candidates. Measured in China, in 2018 and 2019.
9: Mean corneal power 43.6 ± 1.6 D. Measured with Lenstar LS900. 1554 subjects: mean age 59.1 ± 10.5. Measured in Germany.
27: Mean 43.80 ± 1.49 D for right eyes and 43.77 ± 1.49 D for left eyes. Measured with Topcon KR8800. 1.111 subjects: age 57.48 ± 10.68. Measured in Hebei Province in northern China.
33: Mean 44.15 ± 1.36 D. Measured with Oculus Pentacam AXL. Measured in Iran from 2019 to 2020. 25: Myopic study population. Mean 42.34 ± 1.58 D, range from 29.85 to 46.23 D. Measured with IOL Master. 513 subjects: mean age 19.06 ± 0.87 years (15.95 to 22.58). Students at Dali University in Yunnan Province, China.
 . Standard deviation from 1.36 to 1.6 D.


Corneal astigmatism: mean from 0.74 to 1.19 D ▾ 8: Cataract surgery candidates. Mean 1.06 ± 0.96 D. Measured with IOLMaster 700. The right eyes of 28.709 subjects: 59.1%/40.9% female/male, mean age 68.6 ± 11.0 (40 to 101). Measured in China, in 2018 and 2019.
9: Mean 0.74. Measured with Lenstar LS900. 5744 eyes of 3014 subjects: 48.4% female, mean age 58.6 ± 10.4. Measured in Germany.
33: Mean 0.84 ± 0.74 D. Measured with Oculus Pentacam AXL. 4,244 eyes of 2,268 subjects: 1,332 female, mean age 66.9 ± 5.6 (60 to 95). Measured in Iran from 2019 to 2020.
32: Subjects with corneal astigmatism over 6 excluded. Mean 1.19 ± 0.71 D. Range from 0.05 to 5.37 D. Measured with Suoer SW-9000 μm Plus biometer. The right eyes of 935 subjects: 428/507 female/male, mean age 30.69 ± 5.11 (21 to 44). Chinese population.
 . Standard deviation from 0.71 to 0.96 D.

Women: mean 0.80 to 0.83 D ▾ 9: Mean 0.81 in right eyes and 0.80 in left eyes. Measured with Lenstar LS900. 1460 subjects: mean age 58.1 ± 10.3. Measured in Germany.
33 Mean 0.83 ± 0.78 D. Measured with Oculus Pentacam AXL. 1,332 subjects. Measured in Iran from 2019 to 2020. .

Men: mean 0.67 to 0.69 D ▾ 9: Mean 0.67 in right eyes and 0.69 in left eyes. Measured with Lenstar LS900. 1554 subjects: mean age 59.1 ± 10.5. Measured in Germany.
33: Mean 0.84 ± 0.68 D. Measured with Oculus Pentacam AXL. Measured in Iran from 2019 to 2020. .


Corneal volume: mean 61.23 mm³ ▾ 25: Myopic study population. Mean 61.23 mm³ ± 3.22 mm³. Measured with Pentacam tomographer. 1645 subjects: 1132/513 female/male, mean age 19.01 ± 0.92 years (15.69 to 24.41). Students at Dali University in Yunnan Province, China.
 . Standard deviation 3.22 mm³.

Women: mean 61.33 mm³ ▾ 25: Myopic study population. Mean 61.33 mm³ ± 3.24 mm³. Measured with Pentacam tomographer. 1132 subjects: mean age 18.98 ± 0.95 years (15.69 to 24.41). Students at Dali University in Yunnan Province, China.
 . Standard deviation 3.24 mm³.

Men: mean 61.00 mm³ ▾ 25: Myopic study population. Mean 61.00 mm³ ± 3.18 mm³. Measured with Pentacam tomographer. 513 subjects: mean age 19.06 ± 0.87 years (15.95 to 22.58). Students at Dali University in Yunnan Province, China.
 . Standard deviation 3.18 mm³.


[10, 23]

Epithelium

Central thickness: mean from 46.6 µm to 53.4 ▾ 10: Mean 48.6 ± 5.1 µm. 70 subjects: aged 12 to 80 years with 10 subjects per decade.
23: Mean 53.4 ± 4.6 µm. Measured with Artemis 1 very high-frequency digital ultrasound scanning across the central 10-mm diameter. 110 eyes of 56 refractive surgery candidates.
 . Standard deviation from 4.6 to 5.1 µm.


[15, 16, 26, 38, 41, 43]

Retinal thickness not specified by grid

Average retinal thickness

Mean/median from 270.86 to 274.2 µm ▾. 41: Cube average thickness mean 270.86 ± 15.74 µm. Measured with Angioplex 6 x 6 on Carl Zeiss Cirrus 5000. 4.188 eyes of 4.188 subjects: 34.6% male, mean age 63.51 ± 7.62 years. Measured in Hong Kong.
38: Age 50+ study population. Median 274.2 µm. Measured with Topcon SS-OCT. 1.461 eyes of 1.461 subjects: mean age 60 years. Measured from 2020 to 2022 in the Beichen District, Tianjin, China.

In women: Median 273.8 µm ▾. 38: Age 50+ study population. Median 273.8 µm. Measured with Topcon SS-OCT. 1.017 eyes of 1.017 subjects: mean age 58 years. Measured from 2020 to 2022 in the Beichen District, Tianjin, China.

In men: Median 275.3 µm ▾. 38: Age 50+ study population. Median 275.3 µm. Measured with Topcon SS-OCT. 444 eyes of 444 subjects: mean age 62 years. Measured from 2020 to 2022 in the Beichen District, Tianjin, China.

Nerve fiber layer thickness

Mean/median 33.8 µm ▾. 38: Age 50+ study population. Median 33.8 µm. Measured with Topcon SS-OCT. 1.461 eyes of 1.461 subjects: mean age 60 years. Measured from 2020 to 2022 in the Beichen District, Tianjin, China.

In women: Median 33.9 µm ▾. 38: Age 50+ study population. Median 33.9 µm. Measured with Topcon SS-OCT. 1.017 eyes of 1.017 subjects: mean age 58 years. Measured from 2020 to 2022 in the Beichen District, Tianjin, China.

In men: Median 33.7 µm ▾. 38: Age 50+ study population. Median 33.7 µm. Measured with Topcon SS-OCT. 444 eyes of 444 subjects: mean age 62 years. Measured from 2020 to 2022 in the Beichen District, Tianjin, China.

Ganglion cell layer thickness

Median 71.5 µm ▾. 38: Age 50+ study population. Median 71.5 µm. Measured with Topcon SS-OCT. 1.461 eyes of 1.461 subjects: mean age 60 years. Measured from 2020 to 2022 in the Beichen District, Tianjin, China.

In women: Median 71.6 µm ▾. 38: Age 50+ study population. Median 71.6 µm. Measured with Topcon SS-OCT. 1.017 eyes of 1.017 subjects: mean age 58 years. Measured from 2020 to 2022 in the Beichen District, Tianjin, China.

In men: Median 71.4 µm ▾. 38: Age 50+ study population. Median 71.4 µm. Measured with Topcon SS-OCT. 444 eyes of 444 subjects: mean age 62 years. Measured from 2020 to 2022 in the Beichen District, Tianjin, China.

Retinal thickness by the ETDRS macular grid

Center Outer superior Outer nasal Outer inferior Outer temporal Inner superior Inner nasal Inner inferior Inner temp.

Click on a cell to see the values.

Center
Full thickness

Mean/median from 237.8 to 284 µm ▾ 26: Mean 265.7 ± 24.8 µm. 3,693 eyes: age 50 to 74 years. Measured in Iran.
15: Mean 237.8 ± 20.3 µm. Range from 186.7 to 312 µm. Measured with Topcon Maestro 3 OCT. 266 subjects: 32% female, Japanese and other Asian, mean age 49.1 ± 10.5 (17-79). Measured in Japan.
16: The control group of the study. Median 284 µm. Range from 256-312 µm. Measured with Spectralis SD-OCT. 22 subjects: 63.6% female, mean age 71 (64-84). Measured in Poland.
 . Standard deviation 20.3 to 24.8 µm. Range from 186.7 to 312 µm.

In women: Mean 232.4 µm ▾ 15: Mean 232.4 ± 19.0 µm. Measured with Topcon Maestro 3 OCT. 85 subjects: Japanese and other Asian. Measured in Japan.
 . Standard deviation 19.0 µm.

In men: Mean 240.3 µm ▾ 15: Mean 240.3 ± 20.4 µm. Measured with Topcon Maestro 3 OCT. 181 subjects: Japanese and other Asian. Measured in Japan.
 . Standard deviation 20.4 µm.

Nerve fiber layer thickness

Mean/median from 10.92 to 13 µm ▾ 43: Data from the near-emmetropic control group. Young adult subjects. Mean 10.92 ± 2.43 µm. Measured with Heidelberg Spectralis OCT. 61 subjects: mean age 20.5 ± 1.86 years, between 18 and 27 years, ethnicity African and Indian. Measured in Durban, South Africa.
16: The control group of the study. Median 13 µm. Range from 10-16 µm. Measured with Spectralis SD-OCT. 22 subjects: 63.6% female, mean age 71 (64-84). Measured in Poland.
 . Range from 10 to 16 µm.

Ganglion cell layer thickness

Mean/median from 12.90 to 15 µm ▾ 43: Data from the near-emmetropic control group. Young adult subjects. Median 12.90 ± 3.47 µm. Measured with Heidelberg Spectralis OCT. 61 subjects: mean age 20.5 ± 1.86 years, between 18 and 27 years, ethnicity African and Indian. Measured in Durban, South Africa.
16: The control group of the study. Median 15 µm. Range from 11-24 µm. Measured with Spectralis SD-OCT. 22 subjects: 63.6% female, mean age 71 (64-84). Measured in Poland.
 . Range from 11 to 24 µm.

Inner plexiform layer thickness

Median 22 µm ▾ 16: The control group of the study. Median 22 µm. Range from 17-28 µm. Measured with Spectralis SD-OCT. 22 subjects: 63.6% female, mean age 71 (64-84). Measured in Poland.
 . Range from 17 to 28 µm.

Inner nuclear layer thickness

Median 23 µm ▾ 16: The control group of the study. Median 23 µm. Range from 14-31 µm. Measured with Spectralis SD-OCT. 22 subjects: 63.6% female, mean age 71 (64-84). Measured in Poland.
 . Range from 14 to 31 µm.

Outer plexiform layer thickness

Median 27 µm ▾ 16: The control group of the study. Median 27 µm. Range from 20-44 µm. Measured with Spectralis SD-OCT. 22 subjects: 63.6% female, mean age 71 (64-84). Measured in Poland.
 . Range from 20 to 44 µm.

Outer nuclear layer thickness

Median 96 µm ▾ 16: The control group of the study. Median 96 µm. Range from 80-108 µm. Measured with Spectralis SD-OCT. 22 subjects: 63.6% female, mean age 71 (64-84). Measured in Poland.
 . Range from 80 to 108 µm.

Outer superior
Full thickness

Mean/median from 276.1 to 295 µm ▾ 15: Mean 276.1 ± 12.6 µm. Range from 227.1 to 318.7 µm. Measured with Topcon Maestro 3 OCT. 266 subjects: 32% female, Japanese and other Asian, mean age 49.1 ± 10.5 (17-79). Measured in Japan.
16: The control group of the study. Median 295 µm. Range from 270 to 324 µm. Measured with Spectralis SD-OCT. 22 subjects: 63.6% female, mean age 71 (64-84). Measured in Poland.
 . Standard deviation 12.6 µm. Range from 227.1 to 324 µm.

In women: Mean 277.0 µm ▾ 15: Mean 277.0 ± 10.7 µm. Measured with Topcon Maestro 3 OCT. 85 subjects: Japanese and other Asian. Measured in Japan.
 . Standard deviation 10.7 µm.

In men: Mean 275.0 µm ▾ 15: Mean 275.0 ± 13.5 µm. Measured with Topcon Maestro 3 OCT. 181 subjects: Japanese and other Asian. Measured in Japan.
 . Standard deviation 13.5 µm.

Nerve fiber layer thickness

Mean/median from 37.33 to 38 µm ▾ 43: Data from the near-emmetropic control group. Young adult subjects. Mean 37.33 ± 4.69 µm. Measured with Heidelberg Spectralis OCT. 61 subjects: mean age 20.5 ± 1.86 years, between 18 and 27 years, ethnicity African and Indian. Measured in Durban, South Africa.
16: The control group of the study. Median 38 µm. Range from 29-54 µm. Measured with Spectralis SD-OCT. 22 subjects: 63.6% female, mean age 71 (64-84). Measured in Poland.
 . Range from 29 to 54 µm.

Ganglion cell layer thickness

Mean/median from 33 to 38.15 µm ▾ 43: Data from the near-emmetropic control group. Young adult subjects. Median 38.15 ± 3.24 µm. Measured with Heidelberg Spectralis OCT. 61 subjects: mean age 20.5 ± 1.86 years, between 18 and 27 years, ethnicity African and Indian. Measured in Durban, South Africa.
16: The control group of the study. Median 33 µm. Range from 26-42 µm. Measured with Spectralis SD-OCT. 22 subjects: 63.6% female, mean age 71 (64-84). Measured in Poland.
 . Range from 26 to 42 µm.

Inner plexiform layer thickness

Median 27 µm ▾ 16: The control group of the study. Median 27 µm. Range from 21-33 µm. Measured with Spectralis SD-OCT. 22 subjects: 63.6% female, mean age 71 (64-84). Measured in Poland.
 . Range from 21 to 33 µm.

Inner nuclear layer thickness

Median 31 µm ▾ 16: The control group of the study. Median 31 µm. Range from 29-43 µm. Measured with Spectralis SD-OCT. 22 subjects: 63.6% female, mean age 71 (64-84). Measured in Poland.
 . Range from 29 to 43 µm.

Outer plexiform layer thickness

Median 26 µm ▾ 16: The control group of the study. Median 26 µm. Range from 23-32 µm. Measured with Spectralis SD-OCT. 22 subjects: 63.6% female, mean age 71 (64-84). Measured in Poland.
 . Range from 23 to 32 µm.

Outer nuclear layer thickness

Median 62 µm ▾ 16: The control group of the study. Median 62 µm. Range from 45-69 µm. Measured with Spectralis SD-OCT. 22 subjects: 63.6% female, mean age 71 (64-84). Measured in Poland.
 . Range from 45 to 69 µm.

Outer nasal
Full thickness

Mean/median from 293.1 to 310 µm ▾ 15: Mean 293.1 ± 15.0 µm. Range from 239.3 to 340.1 µm. Measured with Topcon Maestro 3 OCT. 266 subjects: 32% female, Japanese and other Asian, mean age 49.1 ± 10.5 (17-79). Measured in Japan.
16: The control group of the study. Median 310 µm. Range from 281 to 338 µm. Measured with Spectralis SD-OCT. 22 subjects: 63.6% female, mean age 71 (64-84). Measured in Poland.
 . Standard deviation 15.0 µm. Range from 239.3 to 340.1 µm.

In women: Mean 293.0 µm ▾ 15: Mean 293.0 ± 13.4 µm. Measured with Topcon Maestro 3 OCT. 85 subjects: Japanese and other Asian. Measured in Japan.
 . Standard deviation 13.4 µm.

In men: Mean 291.0 µm ▾ 15: Mean 291.0 ± 15.7 µm. Measured with Topcon Maestro 3 OCT. 181 subjects: Japanese and other Asian. Measured in Japan.
 . Standard deviation 15.7 µm.

Nerve fiber layer thickness

Mean/median from 45.77 to 49 µm ▾ 43: Data from the near-emmetropic control group. Young adult subjects. Mean 45.77 ± 5.90 µm. Measured with Heidelberg Spectralis OCT. 61 subjects: mean age 20.5 ± 1.86 years, between 18 and 27 years, ethnicity African and Indian. Measured in Durban, South Africa.
16: The control group of the study. Median 49 µm. Range from 34-63 µm. Measured with Spectralis SD-OCT. 22 subjects: 63.6% female, mean age 71 (64-84). Measured in Poland.
 . Range from 34 to 63 µm.

Ganglion cell layer thickness

Mean/median from 36 to 42.48 µm ▾ 43: Data from the near-emmetropic control group. Young adult subjects. Mean 42.48 ± 3.40 µm. Measured with Heidelberg Spectralis OCT. 61 subjects: mean age 20.5 ± 1.86 years, between 18 and 27 years, ethnicity African and Indian. Measured in Durban, South Africa.
16: The control group of the study. Median 36 µm. Range from 30-44 µm. Measured with Spectralis SD-OCT. 22 subjects: 63.6% female, mean age 71 (64-84). Measured in Poland.
 . Range from 30 to 44 µm.

Inner plexiform layer thickness

Median 27 µm ▾ 16: The control group of the study. Median 27 µm. Range from 24-34 µm. Measured with Spectralis SD-OCT. 22 subjects: 63.6% female, mean age 71 (64-84). Measured in Poland.
 . Range from 24 to 34 µm.

Inner nuclear layer thickness

Median 33 µm ▾ 16: The control group of the study. Median 33 µm. Range from 30-38 µm. Measured with Spectralis SD-OCT. 22 subjects: 63.6% female, mean age 71 (64-84). Measured in Poland.
 . Range from 30 to 38 µm.

Outer plexiform layer thickness

Median 29 µm ▾ 16: The control group of the study. Median 29 µm. Range from 25-41 µm. Measured with Spectralis SD-OCT. 22 subjects: 63.6% female, mean age 71 (64-84). Measured in Poland.
 . Range from 25 to 41 µm.

Outer nuclear layer thickness

Median 52 µm ▾ 16: The control group of the study. Median 52 µm. Range from 43-67 µm. Measured with Spectralis SD-OCT. 22 subjects: 63.6% female, mean age 71 (64-84). Measured in Poland.
 . Range from 43 to 67 µm.

Outer inferior
Full thickness

Mean/median from 262.8 to 288 µm ▾ 15: Mean 262.8 ± 13.1 µm. Range from 218.0 to 302.3 µm. Measured with Topcon Maestro 3 OCT. 266 subjects: 32% female, Japanese and other Asian, mean age 49.1 ± 10.5 (17-79). Measured in Japan.
16: The control group of the study. Median 288 µm. Range from 267 to 312 µm. Measured with Spectralis SD-OCT. 22 subjects: 63.6% female, mean age 71 (64-84). Measured in Poland.
 . Standard deviation 13.1 µm. Range from 218.0 to 312 µm.

In women: Mean 263.5 µm ▾ 15: Mean 263.5 ± 12.5 µm. Measured with Topcon Maestro 3 OCT. 85 subjects: Japanese and other Asian. Measured in Japan.
 . Standard deviation 12.5 µm.

In men: Mean 262.5 µm ▾ 15: Mean 262.5 ± 13.4 µm. Measured with Topcon Maestro 3 OCT. 181 subjects: Japanese and other Asian. Measured in Japan.
 . Standard deviation 13.4 µm.

Nerve fiber layer thickness

Mean/median from 38.82 to 40 µm ▾ 43: Data from the near-emmetropic control group. Young adult subjects. Mean 38.82 ± 6.20 µm. Measured with Heidelberg Spectralis OCT. 61 subjects: mean age 20.5 ± 1.86 years, between 18 and 27 years, ethnicity African and Indian. Measured in Durban, South Africa.
16: The control group of the study. Median 40 µm. Range from 30-54 µm. Measured with Spectralis SD-OCT. 22 subjects: 63.6% female, mean age 71 (64-84). Measured in Poland.
 . Range from 30 to 54 µm.

Ganglion cell layer thickness

Mean/median from 33 to 36.87 µm ▾ 43: Data from the near-emmetropic control group. Young adult subjects. Mean 36.87 ± 4.35 µm. Measured with Heidelberg Spectralis OCT. 61 subjects: mean age 20.5 ± 1.86 years, between 18 and 27 years, ethnicity African and Indian. Measured in Durban, South Africa.
16: The control group of the study. Median 33 µm. Range from 27-40 µm. Measured with Spectralis SD-OCT. 22 subjects: 63.6% female, mean age 71 (64-84). Measured in Poland.
 . Range from 27 to 40 µm.

Inner plexiform layer thickness

Median 27 µm ▾ 16: The control group of the study. Median 27 µm. Range from 21-32 µm. Measured with Spectralis SD-OCT. 22 subjects: 63.6% female, mean age 71 (64-84). Measured in Poland.
 . Range from 21 to 32 µm.

Inner nuclear layer thickness

Median 32 µm ▾ 16: The control group of the study. Median 32 µm. Range from 29-36 µm. Measured with Spectralis SD-OCT. 22 subjects: 63.6% female, mean age 71 (64-84). Measured in Poland.
 . Range from 29 to 36 µm.

Outer plexiform layer thickness

Median 28 µm ▾ 16: The control group of the study. Median 28 µm. Range from 24-30 µm. Measured with Spectralis SD-OCT. 22 subjects: 63.6% female, mean age 71 (64-84). Measured in Poland.
 . Range from 24 to 30 µm.

Outer nuclear layer thickness

Median 49 µm ▾ 16: The control group of the study. Median 49 µm. Range from 39-61 µm. Measured with Spectralis SD-OCT. 22 subjects: 63.6% female, mean age 71 (64-84). Measured in Poland.
 . Range from 39 to 61 µm.

Outer temporal
Full thickness

Mean/median from 264.9 to 285 µm ▾ 15: Mean 264.9 ± 12.4 µm. Range from 227.6 to 299.3 µm. Measured with Topcon Maestro 3 OCT. 266 subjects: 32% female, Japanese and other Asian, mean age 49.1 ± 10.5 (17-79). Measured in Japan.
16: The control group of the study. Median 285 µm. Range from 260 to 303 µm. Measured with Spectralis SD-OCT. 22 subjects: 63.6% female, mean age 71 (64-84). Measured in Poland.
 . Standard deviation 12.4 µm. Range from 227.6 to 303 µm.

In women: Mean 262.4 µm ▾ 15: Mean 262.4 ± 11.0 µm. Measured with Topcon Maestro 3 OCT. 85 subjects: Japanese and other Asian. Measured in Japan.
 . Standard deviation 11.0 µm.

In men: Mean 266.0 µm ▾ 15: Mean 266.0 ± 12.8 µm. Measured with Topcon Maestro 3 OCT. 181 subjects: Japanese and other Asian. Measured in Japan.
 . Standard deviation 12.8 µm.

Nerve fiber layer thickness

Mean/median from 17.87 to 20 µm ▾ 43: Data from the near-emmetropic control group. Young adult subjects. Mean 17.87 ± 1.23 µm. Measured with Heidelberg Spectralis OCT. 61 subjects: mean age 20.5 ± 1.86 years, between 18 and 27 years, ethnicity African and Indian. Measured in Durban, South Africa.
16: The control group of the study. Median 20 µm. Range from 17-25 µm. Measured with Spectralis SD-OCT. 22 subjects: 63.6% female, mean age 71 (64-84). Measured in Poland.
 . Range from 17 to 25 µm.

Ganglion cell layer thickness

Mean/median from 35 to 41.44 µm ▾ 43: Data from the near-emmetropic control group. Young adult subjects. Mean 41.44 ± 4.46 µm. Measured with Heidelberg Spectralis OCT. 61 subjects: mean age 20.5 ± 1.86 years, between 18 and 27 years, ethnicity African and Indian. Measured in Durban, South Africa.
16: The control group of the study. Median 35 µm. Range from 28-46 µm. Measured with Spectralis SD-OCT. 22 subjects: 63.6% female, mean age 71 (64-84). Measured in Poland.
 . Range from 28 to 46 µm.

Inner plexiform layer thickness

Median 33 µm ▾ 16: The control group of the study. Median 33 µm. Range from 29-38 µm. Measured with Spectralis SD-OCT. 22 subjects: 63.6% female, mean age 71 (64-84). Measured in Poland.
 . Range from 29 to 38 µm.

Inner nuclear layer thickness

Median 33 µm ▾ 16: The control group of the study. Median 33 µm. Range from 30-38 µm. Measured with Spectralis SD-OCT. 22 subjects: 63.6% female, mean age 71 (64-84). Measured in Poland.
 . Range from 30 to 38 µm.

Outer plexiform layer thickness

Median 26 µm ▾ 16: The control group of the study. Median 26 µm. Range from 24-30 µm. Measured with Spectralis SD-OCT. 22 subjects: 63.6% female, mean age 71 (64-84). Measured in Poland.
 . Range from 24 to 30 µm.

Outer nuclear layer thickness

Median 59 µm ▾ 16: The control group of the study. Median 59 µm. Range from 43-68 µm. Measured with Spectralis SD-OCT. 22 subjects: 63.6% female, mean age 71 (64-84). Measured in Poland.
 . Range from 43 to 68 µm.

Inner superior
Full thickness

Mean/median from 318.3 to 342 µm ▾ 15: Mean 318.3 ± 14.5 µm. Range from 269.9 to 355.9 µm. Measured with Topcon Maestro 3 OCT. 266 subjects: 32% female, Japanese and other Asian, mean age 49.1 ± 10.5 (17-79). Measured in Japan.
16: The control group of the study. Median 342 µm. Range from 321 to 362 µm. Measured with Spectralis SD-OCT. 22 subjects: 63.6% female, mean age 71 (64-84). Measured in Poland.
 . Standard deviation 14.5 µm. Range from 269.6 to 362 µm.

In women: Mean 314.8 µm ▾ 15: Mean 314.8 ± 12.8 µm. Measured with Topcon Maestro 3 OCT. 85 subjects: Japanese and other Asian. Measured in Japan.
 . Standard deviation 12.8 µm.

In men: Mean 319.9 µm ▾ 15: Mean 319.9 ± 15.0 µm. Measured with Topcon Maestro 3 OCT. 181 subjects: Japanese and other Asian. Measured in Japan.
 . Standard deviation 15.0 µm.

Nerve fiber layer thickness

Mean/median from 23.20 to 24 µm ▾ 43: Data from the near-emmetropic control group. Young adult subjects. Mean 23.20 ± 3.46 µm. Measured with Heidelberg Spectralis OCT. 61 subjects: mean age 20.5 ± 1.86 years, between 18 and 27 years, ethnicity African and Indian. Measured in Durban, South Africa.
16: The control group of the study. Median 24 µm. Range from 18-34 µm. Measured with Spectralis SD-OCT. 22 subjects: 63.6% female, mean age 71 (64-84). Measured in Poland.
 . Range from 18 to 34 µm.

Ganglion cell layer thickness

Mean/median from 52 to 54.48 µm ▾ 43: Data from the near-emmetropic control group. Young adult subjects. Mean 54.48 ± 4.85 µm. Measured with Heidelberg Spectralis OCT. 61 subjects: mean age 20.5 ± 1.86 years, between 18 and 27 years, ethnicity African and Indian. Measured in Durban, South Africa.
16: The control group of the study. Median 52 µm. Range from 37-60 µm. Measured with Spectralis SD-OCT. 22 subjects: 63.6% female, mean age 71 (64-84). Measured in Poland.
 . Range from 37 to 60 µm.

Inner plexiform layer thickness

Median 41 µm ▾ 16: The control group of the study. Median 41 µm. Range from 37-49 µm. Measured with Spectralis SD-OCT. 22 subjects: 63.6% female, mean age 71 (64-84). Measured in Poland.
 . Range from 37 to 49 µm.

Inner nuclear layer thickness

Median 43 µm ▾ 16: The control group of the study. Median 43 µm. Range from 37-50 µm. Measured with Spectralis SD-OCT. 22 subjects: 63.6% female, mean age 71 (64-84). Measured in Poland.
 . Range from 37 to 50 µm.

Outer plexiform layer thickness

Median 31 µm ▾ 16: The control group of the study. Median 31 µm. Range from 27-51 µm. Measured with Spectralis SD-OCT. 22 subjects: 63.6% female, mean age 71 (64-84). Measured in Poland.
 . Range from 27 to 51 µm.

Outer nuclear layer thickness

Median 71 µm ▾ 16: The control group of the study. Median 71 µm. Range from 50-78 µm. Measured with Spectralis SD-OCT. 22 subjects: 63.6% female, mean age 71 (64-84). Measured in Poland.
 . Range from 50 to 78 µm.

Inner nasal
Full thickness

Mean/median from 316.8 to 343 µm ▾ 15: Mean 316.8 ± 15.2 µm. Range from 263.4 to 357.8 µm. Measured with Topcon Maestro 3 OCT. 266 subjects: 32% female, Japanese and other Asian, mean age 49.1 ± 10.5 (17-79). Measured in Japan.
16: The control group of the study. Median 343 µm. Range from 324 to 364 µm. Measured with Spectralis SD-OCT. 22 subjects: 63.6% female, mean age 71 (64-84). Measured in Poland.
 . Standard deviation 15.2 µm. Range from 263.4 to 364 µm.

In women: Mean 311.7 µm ▾ 15: Mean 311.7 ± 14.4 µm. Measured with Topcon Maestro 3 OCT. 85 subjects: Japanese and other Asian. Measured in Japan.
 . Standard deviation 14.4 µm.

In men: Mean 319.2 µm ▾ 15: Mean 319.2 ± 15.0 µm. Measured with Topcon Maestro 3 OCT. 181 subjects: Japanese and other Asian. Measured in Japan.
 . Standard deviation 15.0 µm.

Nerve fiber layer thickness

Mean/median from 19.75 to 21 µm ▾ 43: Data from the near-emmetropic control group. Young adult subjects. Mean 19.75 ± 1.99 µm. Measured with Heidelberg Spectralis OCT. 61 subjects: mean age 20.5 ± 1.86 years, between 18 and 27 years, ethnicity African and Indian. Measured in Durban, South Africa.
16: The control group of the study. Median 21 µm. Range from 18-26 µm. Measured with Spectralis SD-OCT. 22 subjects: 63.6% female, mean age 71 (64-84). Measured in Poland.
 . Range from 18 to 26 µm.

Ganglion cell layer thickness

Mean/median from 50 to 52.10 µm ▾ 43: Data from the near-emmetropic control group. Young adult subjects. Mean 52.10 ± 5.99 µm. Measured with Heidelberg Spectralis OCT. 61 subjects: mean age 20.5 ± 1.86 years, between 18 and 27 years, ethnicity African and Indian. Measured in Durban, South Africa.
16: The control group of the study. Median 50 µm. Range from 36-58 µm. Measured with Spectralis SD-OCT. 22 subjects: 63.6% female, mean age 71 (64-84). Measured in Poland.
 . Range from 36 to 58 µm.

Inner plexiform layer thickness

Median 42 µm ▾ 16: The control group of the study. Median 42 µm. Range from 36-47 µm. Measured with Spectralis SD-OCT. 22 subjects: 63.6% female, mean age 71 (64-84). Measured in Poland.
 . Range from 36 to 47 µm.

Inner nuclear layer thickness

Median 44 µm ▾ 16: The control group of the study. Median 44 µm. Range from 38-50 µm. Measured with Spectralis SD-OCT. 22 subjects: 63.6% female, mean age 71 (64-84). Measured in Poland.
 . Range from 38 to 50 µm.

Outer plexiform layer thickness

Median 35 µm ▾ 16: The control group of the study. Median 35 µm. Range from 25-57 µm. Measured with Spectralis SD-OCT. 22 subjects: 63.6% female, mean age 71 (64-84). Measured in Poland.
 . Range from 25 to 57 µm.

Outer nuclear layer thickness

Median 71 µm ▾ 16: The control group of the study. Median 71 µm. Range from 44-89 µm. Measured with Spectralis SD-OCT. 22 subjects: 63.6% female, mean age 71 (64-84). Measured in Poland.
 . Range from 44 to 89 µm.

Inner inferior
Full thickness

Mean/median from 315.2 to 341 µm ▾ 15: Mean 315.2 ± 14.4 µm. Range from 268.8 to 350.6 µm. Measured with Topcon Maestro 3 OCT. 266 subjects: 32% female, Japanese and other Asian, mean age 49.1 ± 10.5 (17-79). Measured in Japan.
16: The control group of the study. Median 341 µm. Range from 317 to 362 µm. Measured with Spectralis SD-OCT. 22 subjects: 63.6% female, mean age 71 (64-84). Measured in Poland.
 . Standard deviation 14.4 µm. Range from 268.8 to 362 µm.

In women: 311.0 µm ▾ 15: Mean 311.0 ± 13.0 µm. Measured with Topcon Maestro 3 OCT. 85 subjects: Japanese and other Asian. Measured in Japan.
 . Standard deviation 13.0 µm.

In men: 317.2 µm ▾ 15: Mean 317.2 ± 14.6 µm. Measured with Topcon Maestro 3 OCT. 181 subjects: Japanese and other Asian. Measured in Japan.
 . Standard deviation 14.6 µm.

Nerve fiber layer thickness

Mean/median from 23.92 to 25 µm ▾ 43: Data from the near-emmetropic control group. Young adult subjects. Mean 23.92 ± 2.98 µm. Measured with Heidelberg Spectralis OCT. 61 subjects: mean age 20.5 ± 1.86 years, between 18 and 27 years, ethnicity African and Indian. Measured in Durban, South Africa.
16: The control group of the study. Median 25 µm. Range from 19-32 µm. Measured with Spectralis SD-OCT. 22 subjects: 63.6% female, mean age 71 (64-84). Measured in Poland.
 . Range from 19 to 32 µm.

Ganglion cell layer thickness

Mean/median from 52 to 53.13 µm ▾ 43: Data from the near-emmetropic control group. Young adult subjects. Mean 53.13 ± 5.53 µm. Measured with Heidelberg Spectralis OCT. 61 subjects: mean age 20.5 ± 1.86 years, between 18 and 27 years, ethnicity African and Indian. Measured in Durban, South Africa.
16: The control group of the study. Median 52 µm. Range from 39-61 µm. Measured with Spectralis SD-OCT. 22 subjects: 63.6% female, mean age 71 (64-84). Measured in Poland.
 . Range from 39 to 61 µm.

Inner plexiform layer thickness

Median 41 µm ▾ 16: The control group of the study. Median 41 µm. Range from 32-47 µm. Measured with Spectralis SD-OCT. 22 subjects: 63.6% female, mean age 71 (64-84). Measured in Poland.
 . Range from 32 to 47 µm.

Inner nuclear layer thickness

Median 43 µm ▾ 16: The control group of the study. Median 43 µm. Range from 36-53 µm. Measured with Spectralis SD-OCT. 22 subjects: 63.6% female, mean age 71 (64-84). Measured in Poland.
 . Range from 36 to 53 µm.

Outer plexiform layer thickness

Median 35 µm ▾ 16: The control group of the study. Median 35 µm. Range from 26-53 µm. Measured with Spectralis SD-OCT. 22 subjects: 63.6% female, mean age 71 (64-84). Measured in Poland.
 . Range from 26 to 53 µm.

Outer nuclear layer thickness

Median 63 µm ▾ 16: The control group of the study. Median 63 µm. Range from 44-93 µm. Measured with Spectralis SD-OCT. 22 subjects: 63.6% female, mean age 71 (64-84). Measured in Poland.
 . Range from 44 to 93 µm.

Inner temporal
Full thickness

Mean/median from 305.4 to 330 µm ▾ 15: Mean 305.4 ± 14.5 µm. Range from 255.0 to 343.4 µm. Measured with Topcon Maestro 3 OCT. 266 subjects: 32% female, Japanese and other Asian, mean age 49.1 ± 10.5 (17-79). Measured in Japan.
16: The control group of the study. Median 330 µm. Range from 310 to 349 µm. Measured with Spectralis SD-OCT. 22 subjects: 63.6% female, mean age 71 (64-84). Measured in Poland.
 . Standard deviation 14.5 µm. Range from 255.0 to 349 µm.

In women: 300.6 µm ▾ 15: Mean 300.6 ± 13.3 µm. Measured with Topcon Maestro 3 OCT. 85 subjects: Japanese and other Asian. Measured in Japan.
 . Standard deviation 13.3 µm.

In men: 307.7 µm ▾ 15: Mean 307.7 ± 14.5 µm. Measured with Topcon Maestro 3 OCT. 181 subjects: Japanese and other Asian. Measured in Japan.
 . Standard deviation 14.5 µm.

Nerve fiber layer thickness

Mean/median from 16.57 to 18 µm ▾ 43: Data from the near-emmetropic control group. Young adult subjects. Mean 16.57 ± 1.15 µm. Measured with Heidelberg Spectralis OCT. 61 subjects: mean age 20.5 ± 1.86 years, between 18 and 27 years, ethnicity African and Indian. Measured in Durban, South Africa.
16: The control group of the study. Median 18 µm. Range from 16-21 µm. Measured with Spectralis SD-OCT. 22 subjects: 63.6% female, mean age 71 (64-84). Measured in Poland.
 . Range from 16 to 21 µm.

Ganglion cell layer thickness

Mean/median from 47 to 48.11 µm ▾ 43: Data from the near-emmetropic control group. Young adult subjects. Mean 48.11 ± 5.94 µm. Measured with Heidelberg Spectralis OCT. 61 subjects: mean age 20.5 ± 1.86 years, between 18 and 27 years, ethnicity African and Indian. Measured in Durban, South Africa.
16: The control group of the study. Median 47 µm. Range from 35-56 µm. Measured with Spectralis SD-OCT. 22 subjects: 63.6% female, mean age 71 (64-84). Measured in Poland.
 . Range from 35 to 56 µm.

Inner plexiform layer thickness

Median 42 µm ▾ 16: The control group of the study. Median 42 µm. Range from 35-45 µm. Measured with Spectralis SD-OCT. 22 subjects: 63.6% female, mean age 71 (64-84). Measured in Poland.
 . Range from 35 to 45 µm.

Inner nuclear layer thickness

Median 39 µm ▾ 16: The control group of the study. Median 39 µm. Range from 33-45 µm. Measured with Spectralis SD-OCT. 22 subjects: 63.6% female, mean age 71 (64-84). Measured in Poland.
 . Range from 33 to 45 µm.

Outer plexiform layer thickness

Median 31 µm ▾ 16: The control group of the study. Median 31 µm. Range from 23-40 µm. Measured with Spectralis SD-OCT. 22 subjects: 63.6% female, mean age 71 (64-84). Measured in Poland.
 . Range from 23 to 40 µm.

Outer nuclear layer thickness

Median 77 µm ▾ 16: The control group of the study. Median 77 µm. Range from 46-94 µm. Measured with Spectralis SD-OCT. 22 subjects: 63.6% female, mean age 71 (64-84). Measured in Poland.
 . Range from 46 to 94 µm.

Peripapillary retinal thickness

Retinal nerve fiber layer thickness

Global:

Mean 108.74 µm ▾. 43: Data from the near-emmetropic control group. Young adult subjects. Mean 108.74 ± 10.51 µm. Measured with Heidelberg Spectralis OCT. 61 subjects: mean age 20.5 ± 1.86 years, between 18 and 27 years, ethnicity African and Indian. Measured in Durban, South Africa.

Superior nasal:

Mean 134.44 µm ▾. 43: Data from the near-emmetropic control group. Young adult subjects. Mean 134.44 ± 24.58 µm. Measured with Heidelberg Spectralis OCT. 61 subjects: mean age 20.5 ± 1.86 years, between 18 and 27 years, ethnicity African and Indian. Measured in Durban, South Africa.

Nasal:

Mean 76.49 µm ▾. 43: Data from the near-emmetropic control group. Young adult subjects. Mean 76.49 ± 14.06 µm. Measured with Heidelberg Spectralis OCT. 61 subjects: mean age 20.5 ± 1.86 years, between 18 and 27 years, ethnicity African and Indian. Measured in Durban, South Africa.

Inferior nasal:

Mean 131.59 µm ▾. 43: Data from the near-emmetropic control group. Young adult subjects. Mean 131.59 ± 26.19 µm. Measured with Heidelberg Spectralis OCT. 61 subjects: mean age 20.5 ± 1.86 years, between 18 and 27 years, ethnicity African and Indian. Measured in Durban, South Africa.

Inferior temporal:

Mean 150.33 µm ▾. 43: Data from the near-emmetropic control group. Young adult subjects. Mean 150.33 ± 20.26 µm. Measured with Heidelberg Spectralis OCT. 61 subjects: mean age 20.5 ± 1.86 years, between 18 and 27 years, ethnicity African and Indian. Measured in Durban, South Africa.

Temporal:

Mean 75.18 µm ▾. 43: Data from the near-emmetropic control group. Young adult subjects. Mean 75.18 ± 12.66 µm. Measured with Heidelberg Spectralis OCT. 61 subjects: mean age 20.5 ± 1.86 years, between 18 and 27 years, ethnicity African and Indian. Measured in Durban, South Africa.

Superior temporal:

Mean 151.70 µm ▾. 43: Data from the near-emmetropic control group. Young adult subjects. Mean 151.70 ± 24.38 µm. Measured with Heidelberg Spectralis OCT. 61 subjects: mean age 20.5 ± 1.86 years, between 18 and 27 years, ethnicity African and Indian. Measured in Durban, South Africa.

Choose structure or click the figure ▾

HVID

Pupil diameter

Globe width

Anatomic values from studies

[9, 25, 26, 27, 29, 30, 31, 38, 39]

Intraocular pressure

Mean and median from 11.35 to 17.45 mmHg ▾ 29: Japan Ningen Dock Study dataset: Mean 13.4 ± 3.0 mmHg for right eyes and 13.5 ± 3.0 mmHg for left eyes. Retrospectively collected measurements with varying devices. 1,477,066 subjects: 612,182/864,884 female/male, mean age 52.3 ± 10.8. Measured in Japan from 2018 to 2019.
Jikey University dataset: Mean 12.7 ± 2.8 mmHg for right eyes and 12.7 ± 2.9 mmHg for left eyes. Retrospectively collected measurements with Canon TX-10 non contact tonometer. 10.361 subjects: 3,511/6,850 female/male, mean age 50,3 ± 11.0. Measured in Japan from 2015 to 2018.
31: Mean 12.81 ± 2.16 mmHg, and mean 12.74 ± 2.08 mmHg at 5 year follow-up. Measured with Goldman applanation tonometry. 7,384 eyes of 3,855 subjects: 58.2% female, mean age 50.36 ± 6.07 (45 to 69) at the follow-up. Measured in Iran in 2009 and 2014.
9: Mean 14.9 ± 2.92 mmHg for right eyes and 15.0 ± 2.96 mmHg for left eyes. Nidek NT-2000 non-contact tonometer repeated three times. 5,744 eyes of 3,014 subjects: 48.4% female, mean age 58.6 ± 10.4. Measured in Germany.
27: Mean 11.35 ± 2.40 mmHg in right eyes and 11.96 ± 2.44 mmHg in left eyes. Measured with Kawa applanation tonometer HA-2. 2,490 subjects: mean age 56.60 ± 10.39 (35 to 86). Measured in Hebei Province in northern China.
26: Mean 15.4 ± 3.2 mmHg. 3,698 eyes: 56% female, mean age 60.4 ± 5.96 years (50 to 74). Measured in Iran.
25: Myopic study population. Biomechanically corrected intraocular pressure mean 17.45 ± 3.03 mmHg, range from 10.50 to 51.50 mmHg. Evaluated with Corvis-ST, adjusted for age, corneal thickness and other parameters. 1645 subjects: 1132/513 female/male, mean age 19.01 ± 0.92 years (15.69 to 24.41). Students at Dali University in Yunnan Province, China.
38: Age 50+ study population. Median 16.0 mmHg. 1.461 eyes of 1.461 subjects: mean age 60 years. Measured from 2020 to 2022 in the Beichen District, Tianjin, China.
39: Mean 14.7 ± 3.2 mmHg. 540 eyes of 290 subjects: 199/91 female/male, mean age 45.2 ± 14.2. Measured in Taiwan.
30: Median 14.0 mmHg with Goldman applanation tonometer. Median 14.0 mmHg with non-contact tonometer. Median 15.0 mmHg with Eyetone Trans-palpebraldigital tonometer. 224 eyes of 112 subjects: 69/43 female/male, median age 44.5 (19-77). Measured in Nepal in 2025.
 . Standard deviation from 2.08 to 3.2 mmHg.

Women: mean 11.41 to 17.58 mmHg ▾ 31: Mean 12.90 ± 2.16 mmHg, and mean 12.84 ± 2.07 mmHg at 5 year follow-up. Measured with Goldman applanation tonometry. Measured in Iran in 2009 and 2014.
9: Mean 14.8 ± 2.86 mmHg in right eyes and 14.9 ± 2.94 mmHg in left eyes. Nidek NT-2000 non-contact tonometer repeated three times. 1460 subjects: mean age 58.1 ± 10.3. Measured in Germany.
27: Mean 11.41 ± 2.36 mmHg in right eyes and 12.06 ± 2.37 mmHg in left eyes. Measured with Kawa applanation tonometer HA-2. 1.379 subjects: mean age 55.89 ± 10.09. Measured in Hebei Province in northern China.
25: Myopic study population. Biomechanically corrected intraocular pressure mean 17.58 ± 3.01 mmHg, range from 10.50 to 51.50 mmHg. Evaluated with Corvis-ST, adjusted for age, corneal thickness and other parameters. 1132 subjects: mean age 18.98 ± 0.95 years (15.69 to 24.41). Students at Dali University in Yunnan Province, China.
38: Age 50+ study population. Median 16.0 mmHg. 1.017 eyes of 1.017 subjects: mean age 58 years. Measured from 2020 to 2022 in the Beichen District, Tianjin, China.
 . Standard deviation from 2.07 to 3.03 mmHg.

Men: mean 11.28 to 17.17 mmHg ▾ 31: Mean 12.67 ± 2.16 mmHg, and mean 12.60 ± 2.07 mmHg at 5 year follow-up. Measured with Goldman applanation tonometry. Measured in Iran in 2009 and 2014.
9: Mean 14.5 ± 2.98 mmHg in right eyes and 15.2 ± 2.96 mmHg in left eyes. Nidek NT-2000 non-contact tonometer repeated three times. 1554 subjects: mean age 59.1 ± 10.5. Measured in Germany.
27: Mean 11.28 ± 2.45 mmHg in right eyes and 11.83 ± 2.52 mmHg in left eyes. Measured with Kawa applanation tonometer HA-2. 1.111 subjects: mean age 57.48 ± 10.68. Measured in Hebei Province in northern China.
25: Myopic study population. Biomechanically corrected intraocular pressure mean 17.17 ± 3.06 mmHg, range from 11.00 to 31.00 mmHg. Evaluated with Corvis-ST, adjusted for age, corneal thickness and other parameters. 513 subjects: mean age 19.06 ± 0.87 years (15.95 to 22.58). Students at Dali University in Yunnan Province, China.
38: Age 50+ study population. Median 15.7 mmHg. 444 eyes of 444 subjects: mean age 62 years. Measured from 2020 to 2022 in the Beichen District, Tianjin, China.
 . Standard deviation from 2.07 to 3.06 mmHg.


[9, 32]

Astigmatism

Mean from 0.57 to 0.59 D ▾ 9: Mean 0.59 ± 0.65 D for right eyes and 0.57 ± 0.60 D for left eyes. 5744 eyes of 3014 subjects: 48.4% female, mean age 58.6 ± 10.4. Measured in Germany.
32: Mean 0.77 ± 0.73 D. Range from 0.00 to 4.84 D. Measured with Nidek ARK-1 Autorefractor. The right eyes of 935 subjects: 428/507 female/male, mean age 30.69 ± 5.11 (21 to 44). Chinese population.
 . Standard deviation from 0.59 to 0.60 D.

Women: mean 0.52 to 0.53 D ▾ 9: Mean 0.53 ± 0.57 D in right eyes and 0.52 ± 0.56 D in left eyes. 1460 subjects: mean age 58.1 ± 10.3. Measured in Germany.
 . Standard deviation from 0.56 to 0.57 D.

Men: mean 0.62 to 0.64 D ▾ 9: Mean 0.64 ± 0.71 D in right eyes and 0.62 ± 0.64 D in left eyes. 1554 subjects: mean age 59.1 ± 10.5. Measured in Germany.
 . Standard deviation from 0.64 to 0.71 D.


[9, 25, 40, 42]

Spherical equivalent

This collection likely is not representative. The study populations may not give a correct picture, and studies often use high refractions as exclusion criteria. It might still be useful to see which mean refractions are found in studies.

Mean from +0.34 to -3.69 D ▾ 9: Mean -0.42 ± 2.54 D in right eyes and -0.43 ± 2.57 D in left eyes. Measured with Humphrey Automated Refractor/Keratometer [HARK] 599. 5744 eyes of 3014 subjects: 48.4% female, mean age 58.6 ± 10.4. Measured in Germany.
25: Myopic study population. Mean -3.69 ± 2.37 D, range from -12.38 to +1.38 D. Measured with noncycloplegic refraction. 1645 subjects: 1132/513 female/male, mean age 19.01 ± 0.92 years (15.69 to 24.41). Students at Dali University in Yunnan Province, China.
42: Mean +0.34 ± 1.31 D. 1.060 eyes of 566 subjects: 335 female, mean age 67.1 ± 6.14 years (60 to 94). Measured from January 2019 to January 2020 in Tehran, Iran.
40: Mean -1.7 ± 1.6 D. 68 eyes of 36 subjects: 18/18 female/male, mean age 40.6 ± 10.3 years, 13/15/8 Asian/Caucasian/Hispanic. Measured in Pasadena, USA.
 . Standard deviation from 1.31 to 2.57 D.

Women: mean -0.38 to -3.80 D ▾ 9: Mean -0.38 ± 2.49 D in right eyes and -0.37 ± 2.55 D in left eyes. Measured with Humphrey Automated Refractor/Keratometer [HARK] 599. 1460 subjects: mean age 58.1 ± 10.3. Measured in Germany.
25: Myopic study population. Mean -3.80 ± 2.31 D, range from -12.38 to +1.38 D. Measured with noncycloplegic refraction. 1132 subjects: mean age 18.98 ± 0.95 years (15.69 to 24.41). Students at Dali University in Yunnan Province, China.
 . Standard deviation from 2.49 to 2.55 D.

Men: mean -0.45 to -3.46 D ▾ 9: Mean -0.45 ± 2.58 D in right eyes and -0.48 ± 2.60 D in left eyes. Measured with Humphrey Automated Refractor/Keratometer [HARK] 599. 1554 subjects: mean age 59.1 ± 10.5. Measured in Germany.
25: Myopic study population. Mean -3.46 ± 2.49 D, range from -11.00 to +1.00 D. Measured with noncycloplegic refraction. 513 subjects: mean age 19.06 ± 0.87 years (15.95 to 22.58). Students at Dali University in Yunnan Province, China.
 . Standard deviation from 2.58 to 2.60 D.


[28, 34, 35, 36, 37]

Break-up time (BUT)

Includes different ways to measure BUT.

Mean from 5.14 to 21.5 seconds ▾ 28: NIBUT mean 11.84 ± 4.4 seconds. Range from 2.3 to 24.3 seconds. Measured with DEA520 topography tester. One eye of 1,087 subjects: 682/405 female/male, mean age 54.7 ± 17.97 (18 to 90). Measured in Beijing, China.
36: Data from the control group of the study. Mean or median: First noninvasive break-up time 5.14 seconds and mean noninvasive break-up time 9.80 seconds measured with Integrated Clinical Platform Ocular Surface Analyzer from SBM System. Fluorescein break-up time 21.5 seconds. 44 subjects: 24/20 female/male, mean age 30.09 ± 10.48 years (18 to 49). Measured in 2022 in Spain.
35: Data from the control group of the study. Mean 9.9 ± 2.5 seconds. 31 eyes of 31 subjects: 16/15 female/male, mean age 56.6 ± 15.3 years.
37: Data from the adult control group of the study. NIBUT median 7.26 seconds, range from 2.87 to 24. Measured from a video recordin with Oculus Keratograph 5M. 27 subjects: 17/10 female/male, mean age 29.44 years (20 to 40). Measured in Madrid, Spain.
34: Data from the control group of the study. Tear thinning time mean 14.75 ± 3.43 blinks/minute. 16 subjects: 9/7 female/male, mean age 57.12 ± 12.22 years (30-77). Measured in Egypt.
 . Standard deviation from 2.5 to 4.4 seconds.

Women: mean 11.25 seconds ▾ 28: NIBUT mean 11.25 ± 4.18 seconds. Measured with DEA520 topography tester. One eye of 682 subjects. Measured in Beijing, China.
 . Standard deviation 4.18 seconds.

Men: mean 13.03 seconds ▾ 28: NIBUT mean 13.43 ± 4.23 seconds. Measured with DEA520 topography tester. One eye of 405 subjects. Measured in Beijing, China.
 . Standard deviation 4.23 seconds.


[34]

Blinking rate

Mean 20.44 blinks/minute ▾ 34: The control group of the study. Mean 20.44 ± 2.25 blinks/minute. Range from 15 to 24 blinks/minute. Counted by an observer during a routine conversation with a doctor. 16 subjects: 9/7 female/male, mean age 57.12 ± 12.22 years (30-77). Measured in Egypt.
 . Standard deviation 2.25 blinks/minute.


[35, 36, 37]

Ocular surface disease index (OSDI) score

Mean from 8.33 to 25.5 ▾ 36: Data from the control group of the study. Mean 8.33, range from 0 to 37.50. Measured with the OSDI questionnaire. 44 subjects: 24/20 female/male, mean age 30.09 ± 10.48 years (18 to 49). Measured in 2022 in Spain.
35: Data from the control group of the study. Mean 25.5 ± 23.1. Measured with a modified OSDI questionnaire. 31 eyes of 31 subjects: 16/15 female/male, mean age 56.6 ± 15.3 years.
37: Data from the adult control group of the study. Median 9.38, range from 0 to 39.58. Measured with the OSDI questionnaire. 27 subjects: 17/10 female/male, mean age 29.44 years (20 to 40). Measured in Madrid, Spain.
 . Standard deviation 23.1. Range from 0 to 39.58.


[36]

Standard Patient Evaluation of Eye Dryness (SPEED) score

Mean 4.00 ▾ 36: Data from the control group of the study. Mean 4.00, range from 0 to 12. Measured with the SPEED questionnaire. 44 subjects: 24/20 female/male, mean age 30.09 ± 10.48 years (18 to 49). Measured in 2022 in Spain.
 . Range from 0 to 12.

[35, 36]

Schirmer

Mean from 5.50 to 14.6 mm ▾ 36: Data from the control group of the study. Mean 5.50 mm. 44 subjects: 24/20 female/male, mean age 30.09 ± 10.48 years (18 to 49). Measured in 2022 in Spain.
35: Data from the control group of the study. Mean 14.6 ± 6.0 mm. 31 eyes of 31 subjects: 16/15 female/male, mean age 56.6 ± 15.3 years.
 . Standard deviation 6.0 mm.

[11]

Orbit

Height: Median from 41.08 to 42.55 mm ▾ 11: Distance between superficial bony margins. Median 41.075 ± 2.4 mm in right eyes and 42.550 ± 2.5 mm in left eyes. Range 38.8 to 44.8 mm. Measured with CT using Philips Brilliance iCT 256-Slice Helical Scanner. 500 eyes of 250 subjects: 134/116 female/male, mean age 47 (18 to 93). Ethnicities includes Jewish, Arab, European, North American and African citizens.
 . Standard deviation from 2.4 to 2.5 mm. Range from 38.8 to 44.8 mm.

Width: Median from 35.33 to 35.86 mm ▾ 11: Distance between superficial bony margins. Median 35.327 ± 2.2 mm in right eyes and 35.862 ± 2.2 mm in left eyes. Range 32.7 to 37.4 mm. Measured with CT using Philips Brilliance iCT 256-Slice Helical Scanner. 500 eyes of 250 subjects: 134/116 female/male, mean age 47 (18 to 93). Ethnicities includes Jewish, Arab, European, North American and African citizens.
 . Standard deviation 2.2 mm. Range from 32.7 to 37.4 mm.

Depth: Median from 47.73 to 48.40 mm ▾ 11: Distance from the cornea to the anterior opening of the optic canal. Median 47.732 ± 4.6 mm in right eyes and 48.396 ± 4.7 mm in left eyes. Range 38.7 to 55.7 mm. Measured with CT using Philips Brilliance iCT 256-Slice Helical Scanner. 500 eyes of 250 subjects: 134/116 female/male, mean age 47 (18 to 93). Ethnicities includes Jewish, Arab, European, North American and African citizens.
 . Standard deviation from 4.6 to 4.7 mm. Range from 38.7 to 55.7 mm.


[27]

Vertical cup/disc ratio

Mean from 0.34 to 0.35 ▾ 27: Mean 0.35 ± 0.13 in right eyes and 0.34 ± 0.13 in left eyes. Measured with RTVue 100-2 OCT. 2.490 subjects: 1.379/1.111 female/male, mean age 56.6 ± 10.39 (35 to 86). Measured in Hebei Province in northern China.
 . Standard deviation 0.13.

Women: mean from 0.33 to 0.34 ▾ 27: Mean 0.34 ± 0.13 in right eyes and 0.33 ± 0.13 in left eyes. Measured with RTVue 100-2 OCT. 1.379 subjects: mean age 55.89 ± 10.09. Measured in Hebei Province in northern China.
 . Standard deviation 0.13.

Men: mean 0.35 to 0.36 ▾ 27: Mean 0.36 ± 0.13 in right eyes and 0.35 ± 0.13 in left eyes. Measured with Humphrey Field Analyzer. 1.111 subjects: mean age 57.48 ± 10.68. Measured in Hebei Province in northern China.
 . Standard deviation 0.13.


[17]

Optic nerve sheath diameter

3 mm posterior to the globe margin: Mean from 5.01 to 5.12 mm. Standard deviation 0.63 mm. Range from 3.85 to 6.9 mm.
For women: Mean 5.01 mm, standard deviation 0.63 mm.
For men: Mean from 5.10 to 5.12 mm, standard deviation 0.63 mm.

8 mm posterior to the globe margin: Mean from 4.35 to 4.41 mm. Standard deviation from 0.49 to 0.52 mm. Range from 3.15 to 6.40 mm.
For women: Mean 4.35 to 4.36 mm, standard deviation 0.51 to 0.52 mm.
For men: Mean from 4.40 to 4.41 mm, standard deviation 0.49 to 0.51 mm.

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1 meter =
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    1000 mm
    3.28 feet
    39.37 inches

1 foot =
    12 inches
    0.3048 meters

References [18, 19, 20]

Weight converter

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1 kg =
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1 pound =
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    0.453592 kg

References [18, 21, 20]

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1 liter =
    1000 milliliters
    1 cubic decimeter
    0.035315 cubic feet
    0.2642 gallons
    67.6 tablespoons

1 cubic meter =
    1000 liters
    1000000 cubic centimeters
    35.315 cubic feet
    264.17 gallons
    67627.9 tablespoons

1 cubic foot =
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1 gallon =
    3.78541 liters
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    8 pints
    16 cups
    256 tablespoons

1 tablespoon =
    14.7868 milliliters / cubic centimeters
    0.0000443603 cubic feet
    0.0591939 cups
    3 teaspoons

References [18, 19, 20]

Temperature converter

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Celsius to Fahrenheit: F = (C · 9/5) + 32

Celsius to Kelvin: K = C + 273.15

Fahrenheit to Celsius: C = (F - 32) · 5/9

Fahrenheit to Kelvin: K = (F + 459.67) · 5/9

Kelvin to Fahrenheit: F = K · 9/5 - 459.67

Kelvin to Celsius: C = K - 273.15

References [18, 22]

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